What Is a Family Tree That Is Used to Follow Human Matings That Have Already Occurred?

Preferential mating pattern between individuals with similar phenotypes (east.g., size, colour)

Assortative mating (also referred to every bit positive assortative mating or homogamy) is a mating pattern and a form of sexual selection in which individuals with similar phenotypes or genotypes mate with ane another more ofttimes than would be expected under a random mating pattern.^[one] A bulk of the phenotypes that are subject to assortative mating are trunk size, visual signals (east.g. color, design), and sexually selected traits such as crest size.^[2] The opposite of assortative is disassortative mating.

Causes [edit]

Several hypotheses accept been proposed to explain the phenomenon of assortative mating.^[iii] Assortative mating has evolved from a combination of unlike factors, which vary across different species.^[4]

Assortative mating with respect to body size can arise every bit a consequence of intrasexual competition. In some species, size is correlated with fecundity in females. Therefore, males cull to mate with larger females, with the larger males defeating the smaller males in courting them. Examples of species that display this blazon of assortative mating include the jumping spider Phidippus clarus and the leaf protrude Diaprepes abbreviatus.^{[5] [6]} In other cases, larger females are amend equipped to resist male courting attempts, and only the largest males are able to mate with them.^{[ citation needed ]}

Assortative mating can, at times, arise as a consequence of social contest. Traits in certain individuals may betoken competitive power which allows them to occupy the best territories. Individuals with similar traits that occupy like territories are more likely to mate with one another. In this scenario, assortative mating does non necessarily arise from choice, but rather by proximity. This was noted in western bluebirds although there is no definite bear witness that this is the major factor resulting in colour dependent assortative mating in this species.^[seven] Different factors may apply simultaneously to result in assortative mating in any given species.^{[ citation needed ]}

In non-human animals [edit]

Assortative mating in animals has been observed with respect to body size and color. Size-related assortative mating is prevalent across many species of vertebrates and invertebrates. It has been found in the simultaneous hermaphrodites such every bit the land snail Bradybaena pellucida. One reason for its occurrence tin be reciprocal intromission (i.east. both individuals provide both male and female gametes during a single mating) that happens in this species. Therefore, individuals with similar body size pair up with one another to facilitate this substitution. Moreover, it is known that larger individuals in such hermaphroditic species produce more eggs, so common mate choice is another factor leading to assortative mating in this species.^[8]

Evidence for size-related assortative mating has also been found in the mangrove snail, Littoraria ardouiniana and in the Japanese mutual toad, Bufo japonicus.^{[9] [10]}

The second common type of assortative mating occurs with respect to coloration. This type of assortative mating is more common in socially monogamous bird species such as the eastern bluebirds (Sialia sialis) and western bluebirds (Sialia mexicana). In both species more brightly colored males mated with more brightly colored females and less brightly colored individuals paired with one another. Eastern bluebirds as well mate assortatively for territorial aggression due to fierce competition for a limited number of nesting sites with tree swallows. Two highly aggressive individuals are better equipped to protect their nest, encouraging assortative mating between such individuals.^[11]

Assortative mating with respect to ii common colour morphs: striped and unstriped also exists in a polymorphic population of eastern red-backed salamanders (Plethodon cinereus).^[12]

Assortative mating is also found in many socially monogamous species of birds. Monogamous species are often involved in bi-parental intendance of their offspring. Since males are every bit invested in the offspring equally the mother, both genders are expected to display mate pick, a phenomenon termed as mutual mate choice. Mutual mate choice occurs when both males and females are searching for a mate that volition maximize their fettle. In birds, female and male person ornamentation can indicate better overall condition or such individuals might have better genes, or be ameliorate suited every bit parents.^[seven]

In humans [edit]

Assortative mating in humans has been widely observed and studied, and can be cleaved down into two types of human assortative mating. These are^{[ citation needed ]}

• genetic assortative mating (assortative mating with mate selection based on genetic type and phenotypical expression)
• and social assortative mating (assortative mating with mate choice based on social, cultural, and other societal factors)

Genetic assortative mating is well studied and documented. In 1903 Pearson and colleagues reported stiff correlations in height, span of artillery, and the length of the left forearm between husband and married woman in one thousand couples.^[13] Assortative mating with regards to appearance does not end in that location. Males prefer female faces that resemble their ain when provided images of three women, with one prototype modified to resemble their own. However, the aforementioned effect does not use to females selecting male faces.^[14]

Assortative mating based on genomic similarities plays a role in human marriages in the United states of america. Spouses are more genetically like to each other than two randomly chosen individuals.^[15] The probability of matrimony increases by roughly fifteen% for every 1-SD increment in genetic similarity. However, some researchers argue that this assortative mating is caused purely by population stratification (the fact that people are more than probable to marry within ethnic subgroups such as Swedish-Americans).^[16]

At the aforementioned time, individuals display disassortative mating for genes in the major histocompatibility complex region on chromosome vi. Individuals experience more attracted to odors of individuals who are genetically different in this region. This promotes MHC heterozygosity in the children, making them less vulnerable to pathogens. Apart from humans, disassortative mating with regards to the MHC coding region has been widely studied in mice, and has also been reported to occur in fish.^[17]

In add-on to genetic assortative mating, humans also demonstrate patterns of assortative mating based on sociological factors as well. Sociological assortative mating is typically cleaved down into three categories, mate choice based on socio-economic condition, mate choice based on racial or ethnic background, and mate choice based on religious beliefs.^[eighteen]

Assortative mating based on socio-economic status is the about broad of these full general categories. Information technology includes the tendency of humans to mate within their socio-economic peers, that is, those with similar social standing, job prestige, educational attainment, or economical background every bit themselves. This blazon of assortative mating includes the growing tendency in recent years for humans to ally people more like themselves in educational attainment or earned income. This applies beyond all socio-economic statuses, both rich and poor, in that the rich and well educated tend to marry among themselves, as do the poor and under educated. This is best observed in the fact that, in the United States, matches among those with similar educational attainment were more common than they would have been if couples had matched randomly.^{[18] [19]}

Another course of sociological assortative mating is assortative mating based on racial and indigenous background. Mentioned above in the context of the genetically similar preferring to mate with one some other, this form of assortative mating tin can take many varied and complicated forms. While the tendency mentioned higher up does exist, and people do tend to marry those genetically similar to themselves, especially if within the same racial or ethnic grouping, this trend tin change in various ways. It is common, for example, for the barriers to intermarriage with the general population experienced past a minority population to decrease as the numbers of the minority population increase. This assimilation reduces the prevalence of this form of assortative mating. Nevertheless, growth of a minority population does not necessarily atomic number 82 to decreased barriers to intermarriage. This can be seen in the abrupt increase in the non-white Hispanic population of the United States in the 1990s and 2000s that correlated with a abrupt subtract in the percentage of not-white Hispanics intermarrying with the general population.^[eighteen]

Religious assortative mating is the tendency of individuals to marry within their own religious group. This tendency is prevalent and observable, and changes according to three master factors. The showtime of these is the proportion of available spouses in the area who already follow the same religion as the person searching for a mate. Areas where religious behavior are already similar for most people will ever have high degrees of religious inbreeding. The second is the social distance between the intermarrying religious groups, or the physical proximity and social interactivity of these groups. Finally, the third gene is the personal views one holds towards marrying exterior of a religion. Those who greatly value adherence to religious tradition may exist more than likely to exist averse to marrying beyond religious lines.^[20] Although non necessarily religious, a good instance of humans mating assortatively based on belief construction can exist found in the tendency of humans to marry based on levels of charitable giving. Couples testify similarities in terms of their contributions to public betterment and charities, and this can be attributed to mate option based on generosity rather than phenotypic convergence.^[21]

Assortative mating besides seems to be very widespread among people with mental disorders.^[22]

Effects [edit]

Assortative mating has reproductive consequences. Positive assortative mating increases genetic relatedness inside a family, whereas negative assortative mating accomplishes the contrary effect. Either strategy may be employed by the individuals of a species depending upon which strategy maximizes fettle and enables the individuals to maximally pass on their genes to the adjacent generation. For instance, in the case of eastern bluebirds, assortative mating for territorial aggression increases the probability of the parents obtaining and securing a nest site for their offspring. This in turn increases the likelihood of survival of the offspring and consequently fitness of the individuals.^[vii] In birds whose coloration represents well beingness and fecundity of the bird, positive assortative mating for color increases the chances of genes beingness passed on and of the offspring beingness in good condition. Also, positive assortative mating for behavioral traits allows for more efficient communication betwixt the individuals and they can cooperate better to raise their offspring.^{[ citation needed ]}

On the other hand, mating between individuals of genotypes which are too similar allows for the accumulation of harmful recessive alleles, which tin decrease fitness. Such mating between genetically similar individuals is termed inbreeding which can upshot in the emergence of autosomal recessive disorders. Moreover, assortative mating for aggression in birds can atomic number 82 to inadequate parental intendance. An alternating strategy can be disassortative mating, in which 1 individual is aggressive and guards the nest site while the other individual is more nurturing and fosters the young. This sectionalization of labor increases the chances of survival of the offspring. A classic example of this is in the case of the white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis). This bird exhibits two color morphs – white striped and tan striped. In both genders, the white striped birds are more ambitious and territorial whereas tan striped birds are more engaged in providing parental care to their offspring.^[23] Therefore, disassortative mating in these birds allows for an efficient division of labor in terms of raising and protecting their offspring.^{[ citation needed ]}

Positive assortative mating is a key element leading to reproductive isolation within a species, which in plough may upshot speciation in sympatry over time. Sympatric speciation is defined as the development of a new species without geographical isolation. Speciation from assortative mating has occurred in the Eye Due east blind mole rat, cicadas, and the European corn borer.^{[ citation needed ]}

Like other animals, humans also display these genetic results of assortative mating. What makes humans unique, however, is the tendency towards seeking mates that are not only like to them in genetics and in appearances, only those who are similar to them economically, socially, educationally, and culturally. These tendencies toward using sociological characteristics to select a mate has many effects on the lives and livelihoods of those who choose to marry 1 some other, every bit well equally their children and future generations. Within a generation, assortative mating is sometimes cited as a source of inequality, as those who mate assortatively would ally people of similar station to themselves, thus amplifying their current station.^[xviii] There is debate, however, about whether this growing preference for educational and occupational similarities in spouses is due to increased preferences for these traits, or the shift in workload that occurred as women entered the workforce.^[24] This concentration of wealth in families also perpetuates across generations as parents pass their wealth on to their children, with each successive generation inheriting the resources of both of its parents. The combined resource of the parents allow them to give their child a better life growing up, and the combined inheritances from both parents identify them at an even greater advantage than they would be with their superior instruction and childhoods. This has an enormous impact on the evolution of the social economic structure of a gild.^{[18] [19]}

Economics [edit]

A related concept of 'assortative matching' has been developed inside economics. This relates to efficiencies in production bachelor if workers are evenly matched in their skills or productivity. A consideration of this assortative matching forms the footing of Kremer's 1993 O-ring theory of economic evolution.^[25]

See also [edit]

• Directional selection
• Confusing selection
• Endogamy
• Genetic sexual allure
• Koinophilia
• Matching hypothesis
• Negative pick (natural choice)
• Reinforcement (speciation)

References [edit]

1. ^ Jiang, Yuexin; Bolnick, Daniel I.; Kirkpatrick, Marking (2013). "Assortative mating in animals" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 181 (half-dozen): E125–E138. doi:10.1086/670160. hdl:2152/31270. PMID 23669548. S2CID 14484725.
2. ^ Jiang, Yuexin; Bolnick, Daniel I.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2013). "Assortative mating in animals" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 181 (6): E125–E138. doi:10.1086/670160. hdl:2152/31270. PMID 23669548. S2CID 14484725.
3. ^ Jiang, Yuexin; Bolnick, Daniel I.; Kirkpatrick, Marking (2013). "Assortative mating in animals" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 181 (6): E125–E138. doi:x.1086/670160. hdl:2152/31270. PMID 23669548. S2CID 14484725.
4. ^ Jiang, Yuexin; Bolnick, Daniel I.; Kirkpatrick, Marking (2013). "Assortative mating in animals" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 181 (6): E125–E138. doi:x.1086/670160. hdl:2152/31270. PMID 23669548. S2CID 14484725.
5. ^ Hoefler, Republic of chad D. (2007). "Male mate choice and size assortative pairing in a jumping spider, Phidippus clarus". Animal Behaviour. 73 (6): 943–954. doi:ten.1016/j.anbehav.2006.10.017. S2CID 53197198.
6. ^ Haran, Ally R.; Handler, Alfred M.; Landolt, Peter J. (1999). "Size-assortative mating, male selection and female option in the curculionid beetle Diaprepes abbreviatus". Animal Behaviour. 58 (6): 1191–1200. doi:x.1006/anbe.1999.1257. PMID 10600139. S2CID 11680456.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Jacobs, Anne C.; Fair, Jeanne M.; Zuk, Marlene (2014). "Coloration, Paternity and Assortative Mating in Western Bluebirds". International Journal of Behavioral Biological science. 121 (two): 176–186. doi:x.1111/eth.12327.
8. ^ Kimura, Chiliad.; Hirano, T.; Chiba, South. (2014). "Assortative mating with respect to size in the simultaneously hermaphroditic land snail Bradybaena pellucida". Acta Ethologica. 18 (three): 265–268. doi:10.1007/s10211-014-0211-7. S2CID 13195409.
9. ^ Ng, TPT; Williams, GA (2014). "Size-dependent male mate preference and its association with size-assortative mating in a mangrove snail, littoraria ardouiniana". Ethology International Journal of Behavioural Biology. 120 (x): 995–1002. doi:10.1111/eth.12271.
10. ^ Hase, K; Shimada, K (2014). "Female polyandry and size-assortative mating in isolated local populations of the Japanese common toad Bufo japonicus". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 113 (1): 236–242. doi:10.1111/bij.12339.
11. ^ Harris, MR; Siefferman, 50 (2014). "Interspecific contest influences fitness benefits of assortative mating for territorial assailment in Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis)". PLOS One. 9 (ii): e88688. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988668H. doi:ten.1371/journal.pone.0088668. PMC3916427. PMID 24516672.
12. ^ Acord, K. A.; Anthony, C. D.; Hickerson, C. A. M. (2013). "Assortative mating in a polymorphic salamander". Copeia. 2013 (4): 676–683. doi:10.1643/CE-13-003. S2CID 56474427.
13. ^ "Assortative Mating in Man: A Cooperative Report". Biometrika. two (4): 481–498. 1903-01-01. doi:10.2307/2331510. JSTOR 2331510.
14. ^ Kocsor, Ferenc; Rezneki, Rita; Juhász, Szabolcs; Bereczkei, Tamás (2011-12-01). "Preference for Facial Self-Resemblance and Attractiveness in Human being Mate Option". Archives of Sexual Behavior. twoscore (6): 1263–1270. doi:x.1007/s10508-010-9723-z. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 21267643. S2CID 2920533.
15. ^ Guo, Guang; Wang, Lin; Liu, Hexuan; Randall, Thomas (2014). "Genomic Assortative Mating in Marriages in the United States". PLOS One. nine (xi): e112322. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k2322G. doi:x.1371/periodical.pone.0112322. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC4226554. PMID 25384046.
16. ^ Abdellaoui, Abdel; Verweij, Karin J. H.; Zietsch, Brendan P. (2014-x-07). "No evidence for genetic assortative mating beyond that due to population stratification". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (forty): E4137. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111E4137A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1410781111. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC4210009. PMID 25232036.
17. ^ Chaix, Raphaëlle; Cao, Chen; Donnelly, Peter (2008-09-12). "Is Mate Pick in Humans MHC-Dependent?". PLOS Genetics. 4 (9): e1000184. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000184. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC2519788. PMID 18787687.
18. ^ ^{a b c d e} Schwartz, Christine R. (2013). "Trends and Variation in Assortative Mating: Causes and Consequences". Annual Review of Sociology. 39 (1): 451–470. doi:ten.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145544.
19. ^ ^{a b} Mare, Robert D. (1991-01-01). "Five Decades of Educational Assortative Mating". American Sociological Review. 56 (1): fifteen–32. doi:10.2307/2095670. JSTOR 2095670.
20. ^ JOHNSON, ROBERT ALAN, ed. (1980-01-01). Religious Assortative Marriage. Academic Press. pp. ii. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386580-nine.50001-6. ISBN9780123865809.
21. ^ Tognetti, A.; Berticat, C.; Raymond, M.; Faurie, C. (2014-05-01). "Assortative mating based on cooperativeness and generosity". Journal of Evolutionary Biological science. 27 (v): 975–981. doi:x.1111/jeb.12346. ISSN 1420-9101. PMID 24581285.
22. ^
23. ^ Horton, BM; Hauber, ME; Maney, DL (2012). "Morph Matters: Aggression Bias in a Polymorphic Sparrow". PLOS ONE. 7 (x): e48705. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...748705H. doi:10.1371/periodical.pone.0048705. PMC3485354. PMID 23119092.
24. ^ Breen, Richard; Salazar, Leire (2011-01-01). "Educational Assortative Mating and Earnings Inequality in the Us". American Journal of Sociology. 117 (three): 808–843. doi:10.1086/661778. JSTOR x.1086/661778. S2CID 155832686.
25. ^ Kremer, Michael (1993). "The O-Ring Theory of Economical Development". Q. J. Econ. Oxford Academy Press. 108 (3): 551–575. doi:10.2307/2118400. JSTOR 2118400.

jimenezmodyette.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assortative_mating

Share this post